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1 bitter
'bitə1) (having a sharp, acid taste like lemons etc, and sometimes unpleasant: a bitter orange.) bitter, besk2) (full of pain or sorrow: She learned from bitter experience; bitter disappointment.) bitter3) (hostile: full of hatred or opposition: bitter enemies.) bitter4) (very cold: a bitter wind.) bitende•- bitterly
- bitumen
- bituminousbitterIsubst. \/ˈbɪtə\/1) bitter (en type bittert øl)2) bitterhetbitters bitter (søtt brennevin tilsatt bitterstoff), forklaring: alkoholholdig drikkgin and bitters ( drink) blanding av gin og bittert fatøltake the bitter with the sweet ta det onde med det godeIIadj. \/ˈbɪtə\/1) ( om smak) bitter, besk2) ( om mennesker) bitter, forbitret, hatsk3) ( overført) skarp, bitende, hard, bitende kaldbitter against bitter motbitter to bitter påto the bitter end til den bitre ende, helt til det sisteIIIadv. \/ˈbɪtə\/bitende -
2 bitter
{'bitə}
I. 1. горчив (и прен.)
2. остър, мъчителен, тежък
BITTER poverty крайна мизерия/беднота
3. рязък, жесток
4. злобен, злостен, безмилостен, непримирим, ожесточен
to the BITTER end докрай, до последна възможност, до смъртта
II. 1. горчивина
to take the BITTER with the sweet прен. приемам нещата както дойдат
2. горчива бира
3. обик. рl подправени с пелин и пр. напитки (за апетит и пр.)
III. 1. горчиво
2. хапливо, рязко, жестоко
it is BITTER coldd ужасно е студено* * *{'bitъ} а 1. горчив (и прен.); 2. остър, мъчителен, тежък; bitter p(2) n 1. горчивина; to take the bitter with the sweet прен. прие{3} adv 1. горчиво; 2. хапливо, рязко, жестоко; it is bitter col<BR><BR> n {4}. примесена с горчивина сладост; 2. бот. черв* * *върл; горчив;* * *1. bitter poverty крайна мизерия/беднота 2. i. горчив (и прен.) 3. ii. горчивина 4. iii. горчиво 5. it is bitter coldd ужасно е студено 6. to take the bitter with the sweet прен. приемам нещата както дойдат 7. to the bitter end докрай, до последна възможност, до смъртта 8. горчива бира 9. злобен, злостен, безмилостен, непримирим, ожесточен 10. обик. pl подправени с пелин и пр. напитки (за апетит и пр.) 11. остър, мъчителен, тежък 12. рязък, жесток 13. хапливо, рязко, жестоко* * *bitter[´bitə] I. adj 1. горчив (и прен.); as \bitter as gall ( as wormwood) горчив като пелин; 2. остър, мъчителен, непоносим, нетърпим; тежък; \bitter memories тежки, мъчителни спомени; \bitter blow тежък удар; 3. рязък, остър, жесток; \bitter wind остър вятър; 4. упорит, непоколебим, безкомпромисен, непримирим; ожесточен, озлобен, раздразнен, враждебен; \bitter enemy непримирим (смъртен) враг; \bitter attack ожесточено нападение; FONT face=Times_Deutsch◊ adv bitterly; • to the \bitter end до (самия) край; безкомпромисно, до смърт; to be \bitter against s.th. противопоставям се рязко срещу нещо; II. n 1. горчивина, горчилка, отрова; огорчение; to take the \bitter with the sweet приемам спокойно несгодите (всичко, което дойде); 2. (чаша) горчива бира; pl горчивка (ракия); to have a \bitters пия аператив; FONT face=TmsTr3. pl горчиви лекарства, амара; III. adv горчиво, неприятно, противно; скръбно; рязко, жестоко; it is \bitter cold ужасно е студено. -
3 _критика і похвала
bitter pills may have blessed effects blame-all and praise-all are two blockheads blame is safer than praise blame not others for the faults that are in you free sitters always grumble most at the play let another man praise you no critic has ever settled anything nobody calls himself a rogue people who live in glass houses should not throw stones the pot calls the kettle black praise a fool and you make him useful praise makes a good man better and a bad man worse praise publicly; blame privately praise undeserved is satire in disguise self-praise is no recommendation those who can't, criticize usually we praise only to be praised who spits against the wind spits in his own faceEnglish-Ukrainian dictionary of proverbs > _критика і похвала
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4 end
{end}
I. 1. край, завършък, привършване, изчерпване
END to END край о край, с допрени краища, по дължина, непрекъснато
END on с лицето напред
to collide END on сблъсквам се фронтално
in the END накрая, в края на краищата
to be at an END свършвам
to draw to an END приближавам края си, привършвам се, свършвам
to come to an END свършвам, приключвам (се), привършвам се, закривам се
to put an END to, to make an END of слагам край на, премахвам, унищожавам, турям кръст на
happy END щастлив край/развръзка
on END изправен (за предмет), наред, един след друг, непрекъснато
to stand on END изправям се (за коси)
to make someone's hair stand on END карам да се изправят косите на някого
days/hours on END дни/часове наред, по цели дни/часове, and there is an END of it и толкоз, край
2. край, остатък, угарка, фас
3. край, смърт, кончина
to make a good END умирам леко/достойно/героично
you'll be the END of me ще ме умориш
to the bitter END докрай, до смърт
4. цел
private ENDs лични интереси/цели
to/for this END, with this END in view за/с тази цел
5. резултат
to no END безрезултатно, напразно
6. прен. sl. връх, капак
7. attr краен, последен
to be all on END в очакване съм, ядосан/разсърден съм
to go in/off the deep END разг. избухвам, кипвам, ам. действувам необмислено, стигам до крайност
to hold/keep one's END up държа се, не се (пре) давам, устоявам
to make both ENDs meet свързвам двата края
nо END разг. извънредно много, безкрайно, до немай-къде
it costs nо END струва луди пари
to think no END of someone /oneself имам много високо мнение за някого/за себе си
nо END of безкраен, дълъг, много, маса, сума, куп
it's nо END of a job тя е дълга и широка, тази работа няма край
he meets nо END of people той се среща с много/маса хора
he is nо END of a fellow той е чудо човек/човек и половина
all ENDs up напълно, съвсем
to come to a bad END провалям се, свършвам зле
END of the road прен. край, безизходно положение
to play both ENDs against the middle пол. използувам борбата между две групировки за свои цели
II. 1. свършвам (се), слагам/турям край на, завършвам, приключвам (се), преустановявам, спирам
she ENDed by marrying a millionaire накрая се ожени за милионер
it all ENDed in his apologizing to me накрая той ми се извини, свърши се с това, че той ми се извини
2. умирам, свършвам
3. убивам, довършвам
a blunder to END all blunders невероятна грешка, най-лошата възможна грешка
it all ENDed in smoke нищо не излезе, всичко отиде на вятъра
end in завършвам с, окончавам на
end off/up завършвам, свършвам, приключвам* * *{end} n 1. край; завършък; привършване, изчерпване; end to end край о(2) {end} v 1. свършвам (се); слагам/турям край на; завършвам, пр* * *смърт; умирачка; угарка; свършвам; свършване; свършек; последен; привършване; приключвам; преустановявам; довършване; довършвам; завършвам; завършек; завършък; изчерпване; край; краен; кончина;* * *1. a blunder to end all blunders невероятна грешка, най-лошата възможна грешка 2. all ends up напълно, съвсем 3. attr краен, последен 4. days/hours on end дни/часове наред, по цели дни/часове, and there is an end of it и толкоз, край 5. end in завършвам с, окончавам на 6. end of the road прен. край, безизходно положение 7. end off/up завършвам, свършвам, приключвам 8. end on с лицето напред 9. end to end край о край, с допрени краища, по дължина, непрекъснато 10. happy end щастлив край/развръзка 11. he is nо end of a fellow той е чудо човек/човек и половина 12. he meets nо end of people той се среща с много/маса хора 13. i. край, завършък, привършване, изчерпване 14. ii. свършвам (се), слагам/турям край на, завършвам, приключвам (се), преустановявам, спирам 15. in the end накрая, в края на краищата 16. it all ended in his apologizing to me накрая той ми се извини, свърши се с това, че той ми се извини 17. it all ended in smoke нищо не излезе, всичко отиде на вятъра 18. it costs nо end струва луди пари 19. it's nо end of a job тя е дълга и широка, тази работа няма край 20. nо end of безкраен, дълъг, много, маса, сума, куп 21. nо end разг. извънредно много, безкрайно, до немай-къде 22. on end изправен (за предмет), наред, един след друг, непрекъснато 23. private ends лични интереси/цели 24. she ended by marrying a millionaire накрая се ожени за милионер 25. to be all on end в очакване съм, ядосан/разсърден съм 26. to be at an end свършвам 27. to collide end on сблъсквам се фронтално 28. to come to a bad end провалям се, свършвам зле 29. to come to an end свършвам, приключвам (се), привършвам се, закривам се 30. to draw to an end приближавам края си, привършвам се, свършвам 31. to go in/off the deep end разг. избухвам, кипвам, ам. действувам необмислено, стигам до крайност 32. to hold/keep one's end up държа се, не се (пре) давам, устоявам 33. to make a good end умирам леко/достойно/героично 34. to make both ends meet свързвам двата края 35. to make someone's hair stand on end карам да се изправят косите на някого 36. to no end безрезултатно, напразно 37. to play both ends against the middle пол. използувам борбата между две групировки за свои цели 38. to put an end to, to make an end of слагам край на, премахвам, унищожавам, турям кръст на 39. to stand on end изправям се (за коси) 40. to the bitter end докрай, до смърт 41. to think no end of someone /oneself имам много високо мнение за някого/за себе си 42. to/for this end, with this end in view за/с тази цел 43. you'll be the end of me ще ме умориш 44. край, остатък, угарка, фас 45. край, смърт, кончина 46. прен. sl. връх, капак 47. резултат 48. убивам, довършвам 49. умирам, свършвам 50. цел* * *end [end] I. n 1. край; завършек; привършване, изчерпване; \end for \end обърнат наопаки (обратно); \end to \end с допрени краища; по дължина; непрекъснато; put the tables \end to \end! нареди масите плътно една до друга!; at the \end of August в края на август; in the \end накрая, в края на краищата; to be at an \end свършвам се; here the story comes to an \end на това място разказът свършва; to draw to an \end привършвам се, свършвам; to put an \end to, to make an \end of слагам край, прекратявам; премахвам, унищожавам, ликвидирам; 2. край, остатък; cigarette \ends фасове, угарки; rope's \end късо въже (за камшик); odds and \ends (ненужни) дреболии, вехтории, остатъци; прен. откъслечни думи (фрази) от разговор; 3. край, смърт, кончина; a cruel \end жестока смърт; o.'s latter \end кончина, смърт; to come to an untimely \end умирам преждевременно; to come to a sticky ( bad) \end умирам от насилствена (нелека) смърт; to make a good \end умирам леко (героично, достойно); you'll be the \end of me ще ме умориш; the soldiers met their \end bravely войниците загинаха храбро (смело посрещнаха смъртта); to the bitter ( very) \end докрай, до смърт; 4. цел; an \end in itself самоцел; does the \end justify the means? целта оправдава ли средствата?; private \ends лични интереси; to ( for) this \end, with this \end in view с тази цел; what \end have you in view? какво целиш? каква ти е целта?; to the \end that... (с subj) за да ...; с цел да ...; 5. резултат; to no \end напразно, безрезултатно; 6. attr краен, последен; \end man последният човек в редица; \end product краен продукт; • to the \end of time завинаги, вечно, во веки веков; and there's an \end of it и толкоз, край; to be at the \end of o.'s rope ( tether) намирам се в затруднено положение, попадам в безизходица; to be (on) the receiving \end of изложен съм на; to be thrown ( to jump) in at the deep \end оказвам се в небрано лозе; to come out at (on) the short \end of it; get the short \end of it оказвам се в неизгодна позиция; няма какво повече да говорим; to be all on \end разсърдвам се; нащрек съм; to be at the sharp \end of в центъра съм на (някаква дейност), посветен съм в; вътре съм в (нещата); to be at loose \ends свободен съм; безработен съм; нямам какво да правя to be at o.'s wits' \end виждам се в чудо; to go off the deep \end 1) избухвам; 2) избива ми чивията; превъртам; действам необмислено; happy \end щастлив край (развръзка), хепиенд (на книга и пр.); to hold ( keep) o.'s \end up държа се, издържам, не се предавам; справям се; to make both \ends meet свързвам двата края; no \end извънредно много, до немай-къде, до крайна степен; it upset me no \end това ужасно много ме разтревожи; to think no \end of s.o. имам високо мнение за някого; no \end of много, безкрайно; маса; куп; it's no \end of a job тя е дълга и широка, тая работа край няма; he's no \end of a fellow той е човек и половина, тоя е арабия; on \end изправен (за предмет); наред, един след друг; непрекъснато; his hair stood on \end in horror косата му се изправи от ужас; days on \end с дни наред; for hours on \end по цели часове; to have loose \ends липсват (ми) брънки; има неясноти (неизяснени неща); to play both \ends against the middle полит. използвам борбата между две групировки за свои цели; the \end върхът (в негативен смисъл), "капак"; smoking 30 cigarettes a day is the \end да пушиш по 30 цигари на ден е върхът (прекалено много); to knock the \end in ( off) разг. оплесквам (развалям) работата; the \end of the line ( road) 1) печален край (финал); безизходна, задънена улица (прен.); 2) излязъл от мода this is a very a good suit but it is the \end of the line това е много хубав костюм, но вече не е модерен; the living \end ам. sl страхотен, потресаващ (за филм, шоу, пиеса и пр.); II. v 1. свършвам (се); слагам край на; завършвам, приключвам (с); спирам; he \ended by insulting me, it \ended in his insulting me накрая той ме обиди; 2. умирам, свършвам; to \end it all самоубивам се; слагам край на живота си; 3. слагам железце на края на бастун (чадър); -
5 cry
kraɪ
1. сущ.
1) а) крик, вопль Hearing the loud cry of "a man overboard" ≈ Слыша громкий крик "человек за бортом!" good cry within cry of Syn: scream, shriek, wail б) мольба The cry of the whole people was for a free Parliament. ≈ Весь народ просил о свободном паламенте. Syn: prayer, entreaty, appeal в) плач The loss of husband made her cry all the night. ≈ Она всю ночь рыдала по умершему мужу. г) клич (в частности, боевой), лозунг;
рекламный слоган Syn: slogan д) крики уличных разносчиков, зазывал hue and cry е) общие крики одобрения или недовольства (в каком-л. собрании)
2) молва;
общественное мнение Why, the cry goes, that you marry her. ≈ Ходят слухи, ты на ней женишься. The popular cry was loud against him. ≈ Общественное мнение было агрессивно настроено против него. on the cry popular cry Syn: rumour
3) а) звук, издаваемый тем или иным животным, переводится в зависимости от животного, но особенно собачий лай The distant cry of a wolf. ≈ Далекий волчий вой. б) лай гончих, преследующих зверя give cry open upon the cry
4) свора собак ∙ far cry in full cry much cry and little wool ≈ много шума из ничего;
шума много, толку мало
2. гл.
1) а) кричать;
вопить Syn: bellow, roar, scream, shout, shriek, outcry, yell б) кричать на кого-л.;
кричать, возмущаться Syn: shout, vociferate в) созывать криками покупателей (об уличном разносчике) cry stinking fish Syn: announce г) оглашать, объявлять Syn: proclaim, announce д) ист. церк. спрашивать, не имеет ли кто сведений о препятствиях к заключению брака (в церкви при совершении обряда венчания)
2) восклицать;
взывать к чьим-л. чувствам, молить, просить, умолять;
часто в сочетаниях типа cry smth., см. ниже How he cried to me for help. ≈ Как он молил меня о помощи. cry poverty cry encouragement cry vengeance
3) плакать, рыдать, лить слезы Syn: weep, wail
4) о том или ином животном: издавать характерный для него звук Hark, hark! the sea-birds cry! ≈ Слушайте! Кричат чайки! ∙ cry away cry down cry for cry off cry out cry up there's no use to cry/crying over spilt milk посл. ≈ сделанного, потерянного не воротишь to cry shame upon ≈ порицать, стыдить, поносить крик - to give a * закричать вопль, мольба - to be deaf to smb.'s cries быть глухим к чьим-л. мольбам плач - to have a good * выплакаться крик, выклик уличных разносчиков боевой клич, лозунг молва, слухи - the * goes that... идет молва, что... - on the * по слухам, понаслышке общественное мнение;
требования народа - a * of the people глас народа - a national * for lower taxes вся страна требует снижения налогов крик птицы, вой волка, лай собаки и т. п. свора гончих (презрительное) компания, группа людей предел слышимости;
близкое расстояние - each one village was within * of another от одной деревни до другой было рукой подать( разговорное) крик моды - the latest * последний крик моды - this hair style is all the * такую прическу сейчас носят все модницы > great * and little wool много шума из ничего;
гора родила мышь;
> in full * (охота) с громким лаем, в бешеной погоне;
в разгаре, что есть силы кричать, орать, вопить - to * aloud громко кричать, орать восклицать;
вскрикнуть, крикнуть молить, умолять;
взвывать;
настойчиво требовать - to * for quarter молить о пощаде - to * for help взывать о помощи - the blood of the murdered men cried for vengeance кровь убитых взывала о мщении - the rundown old house cried for a coat of paint обшарпанный, старый дом настоятельно требовал покраски протестовать, поднимать голос против - reason itself does * against it разум восстает против этого плакать - to * bitter tears плакать горькими слезами - to * for joy плакать от радости - to * oneself to sleep плакать, пока не заснешь;
заснуть в слезах оплакивать - to * over one's loss оплакивать потерю оглашать, объявлять - to * the news all over the town разглашать новости по всему городу выкликать, кричать - to * one's wares предлагать товары издавать звуки;
выть, лаять и т. п. > to give smb. something to * about ты у меня еще не так заплачешь!;
> to * barley( шотландское) просить пощады или перемирия > to * halt прекратить, положить конец;
> to * halves требовать равной доли;
> to * shares требовать своей доли;
> to * shame протестовать;
> to * stinking fish хулить собственный товар;
> to * with one eye and laugh with the other быть двуличным;
> to * over spilt milk горевать о непоправимом;
> there's no use crying spilt milk сделанного не воротишь;
слезами горю не поможешь cry вопль;
мольба ~ восклицать;
взывать;
to cry poverty прибедняться ~ звук, издаваемый животным ~ издавать звуки (о животных) ;
cry away горько рыдать, обливаться слезами ~ (боевой) клич;
лозунг ~ крик ~ крик уличных разносчиков ~ кричать;
вопить ~ молва;
on the cry по слухам;
the popular cry общее мнение, "глас народа" ~ оглашать;
объявлять ~ плакать;
to cry bitter tears плакать горькими слезами ~ плач;
she had a good cry она выплакалась ~ предлагать для продажи( об уличном разносчике) ~ свора собак;
much cry and little wool = много шума из ничего;
шума много, толку мало ~ собачий лай ~ издавать звуки (о животных) ;
cry away горько рыдать, обливаться слезами ~ плакать;
to cry bitter tears плакать горькими слезами ~ down заглушать криками ~ down осуждать ~ down раскритиковать ~ down сбивать цену ~ down умалять, принижать ~ for просить, требовать себе( чего-л.) ;
to cry for the moon желать невозможного ~ for просить, требовать себе (чего-л.) ;
to cry for the moon желать невозможного moon: ~ лунный свет;
to cry for the moon требовать невозможного;
to bay the moon лаять на луну, заниматься бессмысленным делом ~ off отказываться от сделки (намерения и т. п.), идти на понятный to ~ one's heart out горько рыдать ~ out объявлять во всеуслышание, выкликать ~ восклицать;
взывать;
to cry poverty прибедняться to ~ shame (upon smb.) порицать, стыдить, поносить (кого-л.) to ~ stinking fish выносить сор из избы to ~ stinking fish хулить то, в чем сам заинтересован ~ up превозносить, прославлять;
there's no use to cry (или crying) over spilt milk посл. = сделанного, потерянного не воротишь far ~ большая разница far ~ далекое расстояние in full ~ в бешеной погоне in full ~ в полном разгаре ~ свора собак;
much cry and little wool = много шума из ничего;
шума много, толку мало ~ молва;
on the cry по слухам;
the popular cry общее мнение, "глас народа" ~ молва;
on the cry по слухам;
the popular cry общее мнение, "глас народа" ~ плач;
she had a good cry она выплакалась ~ up превозносить, прославлять;
there's no use to cry (или crying) over spilt milk посл. = сделанного, потерянного не воротишь tocry one's heart out чахнуть от тоски -
6 dispute
dɪsˈpju:t
1. сущ.
1) диспут, дискуссия, дебаты, полемика (about, over;
with) to stir up a dispute about ≈ вызывать споры о acrimonious dispute, bitter dispute ≈ язвительная полемика heated dispute, sharp dispute ≈ горячий спор public dispute ≈ общественная полемика beyond dispute, out of dispute, past dispute, without dispute ≈ вне сомнения, бесспорно Syn: controversy, debate
1.
2) спор, разногласия;
пререкания, ссора to arbitrate, resolve, settle a dispute ≈ разрешать спор Syn: controversy, quarrel
1.
2. гл.
1) а) спорить, дискутировать( with, against - с;
on, about, over - о) The government and the farmers are disputing about/over the land for the airport. ≈ Правительство и фермеры спорят о том, какую землю отвести под аэропорт. How long will the two parties go on disputing whether luxury be a virtue or a crime? ≈ Как долго две стороны будут спорить, является ли роскошь достоинством или преступление? Syn: argue, debate
2. б) ссориться
2) ставить под сомнение, подвергать сомнению Nobody disputed that Davey was clever. ≈ Никто не подвергал сомнению тот факт, что Деви умен. Her honesty was never disputed. ≈ Ее честность никогда не подвергалась сомнению. Ant: maintain, defend
3) выступать против, бороться, сопротивляться Syn: strive, resist
4) оспаривать (первенство в состязании и т. п.) Russia and Ukraine have been disputing the ownership of the fleet. ≈ Россия и Украина спорили, кому должен принадлежать флот. Fishermen from Bristol disputed fishing rights with the Danes. ≈ Рыбаки из Бристоля спорили о правах на ловлю рыбы с датчанами. диспут, дискуссия, дебаты - heated * горячая /оживленная/ дискуссия - bitter * острая /резкая/ полемика спор;
пререкания, ссора - border * пограничный спор - labour * трудовой конфликт /спор/;
конфликт между рабочими и предпринимателями - * at law (юридическое) тяжба - matter in * предмет спора - beyond /out of, past, without/ * вне всяких сомнений, бесспорно - to settle a * разрешить спор спорный вопрос - the three hour sit-down resolved none of the substantive *s between them трехчасовая встреча не разрешила ни одного из существенных вопросов, по которым они расходятся обсуждать, дискутировать;
принимать участие в диспуте - to * a question обсуждать вопрос спорить, пререкаться - to * about /on, upon/ smth. спорить о чем-л. - to * with /against/ smb. спорить с кем-л., прекословить кому-л. - to * with smb. about the education of children спорить с кем-л. о воспитании детей - some husbands and wives are always disputing в иных семьях мужья и жены вечно пререкаются ставить под сомнение, оспаривать;
сомневаться( в чем-л.) - to * a statement ставить под сомнение заявление - to * an election оспаривать результаты выборов - that he didn't * этого он не оспаривал, против этого он не возражал - but it has happened - and there is no disputing its logic но это произошло, и нет сомнений в том, что это было не случайно выступать против, сопротивляться с оружием в руках - to * the enemy's advance сдерживать наступление противника бороться за, добиваться - to * a victory добиваться победы - to * in arms every inch of ground отстаивать с оружием в руках каждую пядь земли ~ диспут;
дебаты, полемика;
beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения;
бесспорно;
the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения boundary ~ пограничный спор demarcation ~ пограничный спор demarcation ~ спор о демаркационной линии dispute дебаты ~ дискуссия ~ дискутировать ~ диспут;
дебаты, полемика;
beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения;
бесспорно;
the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения ~ диспут ~ обсуждать ~ обсуждение ~ оспаривать (первенство в состязании и т. п.) ~ оспаривать, подвергать сомнению (право на что-л., достоверность чего-л. и т. п.) ~ оспаривать ~ прения ~ пререкаться, ссориться ~ противиться;
препятствовать;
оказывать сопротивление;
отстаивать ~ сомневаться ~ спор, разногласия;
пререкания;
labour( или industrial, trade) dispute трудовой конфликт ~ спор ~ спорить, оспаривать ~ спорить, дискутировать (with, against - с;
on, about - о) ~ спорить ~ спорный вопрос ~ ставить под сомнение to ~ in arms every inch of ground отстаивать с оружием в руках каждую пядь земли to ~ the enemy's advance сдерживать наступление, продвижение противника fishing ~ конфликт в области рыболовства in ~ спорный industrial ~ производственный конфликт industrial ~ производственный спор industrial ~ трудовой спор (на предприятии между профсоюзом и работодателем) interunion ~ спор между различными профсоюзами (например, из-за того, кто должен вести коллективные переговоры) jurisdictional ~ юридический спор ~ спор, разногласия;
пререкания;
labour (или industrial, trade) dispute трудовой конфликт labour ~ трудовой конфликт labour ~ трудовой спор (особенно коллективный) labour: ~ dispute трудовой конфликт labour market ~ конфликт на рынке труда legal ~ правовой спор legal ~ юридические разногласия ~ диспут;
дебаты, полемика;
beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения;
бесспорно;
the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения property ~ спор о праве собственности recognition ~ спор за признание( например, между различнами пофсоюзами за право ведения коллективных переговоров) trade ~ трудовой конфликт wage ~ конфликт из-за оплаты труда wage ~ спор по поводу заработной платы wage ~ трудовой конфликт -
7 fight
1. intransitive verb,2. transitive verb,fight shy of somebody/something — jemandem/einer Sache aus dem Weg gehen
1) (in battle)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas kämpfen; (using fists)
fight somebody — sich mit jemandem schlagen; [Boxer:] gegen jemanden boxen
fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas ankämpfen
3)be fighting a losing battle — (fig.) auf verlorenem Posten stehen od. kämpfen
4) führen [Kampagne]; kandidieren bei [Wahl]5)fight one's way — sich (Dat.) den Weg freikämpfen; (fig.) sich (Dat.) seinen Weg bahnen
3. nounfight one's way to the top — (fig.) sich an die Spitze kämpfen
make a fight of it, put up a fight — sich wehren; (fig.) sich zur Wehr setzen
give in without a fight — (fig.) klein beigeben
2) (squabble) Streit, derthey are always having fights — zwischen ihnen gibt es dauernd Streit
all the fight had gone out of him — (fig.) sein Kampfgeist war erloschen
Phrasal Verbs:- academic.ru/119957/fight_against">fight against* * *1. past tense, past participle - fought; verb1) (to act against (someone or something) with physical violence: The two boys are fighting over (= because of) some money they found.) kämpfen2) (to resist strongly; to take strong action to prevent: to fight a fire; We must fight against any attempt to deprive us of our freedom.) (be)kämpfen3) (to quarrel: His parents were always fighting.) streiten2. noun1) (an act of physical violence between people, countries etc: There was a fight going on in the street.) der Kampf2) (a struggle; action involving effort: the fight for freedom of speech; the fight against disease.) der Kampf3) (the will or strength to resist: There was no fight left in him.) der Kampfwille4) (a boxing-match.) der Boxkampf•- fighter- fight back
- fight it out
- fight off
- fight one's way
- fight shy of
- put up a good fight* * *[faɪt]I. n1. (violent combat) Kampf m (against/for gegen/um + akk); (brawl) Rauferei f; (involving fists) Schlägerei fto give up without a \fight kampflos aufgeben5. (quarrel) Streitto show some \fight (defend oneself) Widerstand leisten, sich akk zur Wehr setzen; (show appetite for fighting) Kampfgeist demonstrieren, sich akk kampflustig zeigen7.II. vi<fought, fought>1. (combat violently) kämpfenthe children were \fighting in the playground die Kinder rauften sich auf dem Spielplatzto \fight like cats and dogs wie Hund und Katze sein▪ to \fight against/for sth/sb gegen/für etw/jdn kämpfen▪ to \fight with each other miteinander kämpfen2. (wage war) kämpfento \fight to the death auf Leben und Tod kämpfento \fight to the bitter end bis zum bitteren Ende kämpfento \fight to the finish bis zum Schluss [o letzten Augenblick] kämpfen▪ to \fight against/for sb/sth gegen/für jdn/etw kämpfento \fight for the winning side für die Sieger kämpfen4. (struggle) kämpfento \fight at [or in] an election bei einer Wahl kandidierento \fight to clear one's name um seinen guten Ruf kämpfen▪ to \fight against sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfento \fight for breath nach Luft ringento \fight for a cause für eine Sache kämpfento \fight for life um sein Leben kämpfen5. BOXING boxen▪ to \fight against sb gegen jdn boxenIII. vt<fought, fought>1. (wage war)▪ to \fight sb/sth gegen jdn/etw kämpfento \fight a delaying action den Feind im Kampf hinhaltento \fight a battle eine Schlacht schlagento \fight a duel ein Duell austragen, sich akk duellierento \fight ships/troops Schiffe/Truppen kommandieren3. (struggle to extinguish)to \fight a fire ein Feuer bekämpfen, gegen ein Feuer ankämpfen4. (strive to win)to \fight an action einen Prozess durchkämpfento \fight a case in [or through] the courts einen Fall vor Gericht durchfechten; (strive to beat)5. (struggle against, resist)to \fight crime das Verbrechen bekämpfento \fight a disease gegen eine Krankheit ankämpfen▪ to \fight sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfen6. (in boxing)▪ to \fight sb gegen jdn boxen7. (battle)to \fight one's way to the top sich akk an die Spitze kämpfen8.▶ to \fight fire with fire mit den gleichen Waffen kämpfen▶ to \fight a losing battle auf verlorenem Posten kämpfen▶ to \fight shy of sb/sth jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen* * *[faɪt] vb: pret, ptp fought1. n1) (lit, fig) Kampf m; (= fist fight, scrap) Rauferei f, Prügelei f, Schlägerei f; (MIL) Gefecht nt; (= argument, row) Streit mto put up a fight (lit, fig) — sich zur Wehr setzen
to put up a good fight (lit, fig) — sich tapfer zur Wehr setzen, sich tapfer schlagen
do you want a fight? — willst du was?, du willst dich wohl mit mir anlegen?
he won't give in without a fight —
in the fight against disease — im Kampf gegen die Krankheit
he lost his fight for life —
2) (= fighting spirit) Kampfgeist m2. vikämpfen; (= have punch-up etc) raufen, sich prügeln, sich schlagen; (= argue with wife etc) sich streiten or zankento fight for sb/sth — um jdn/etw kämpfen
to fight for what one believes in — für seine Überzeugungen eintreten or streiten
to go down fighting — sich nicht kampflos ergeben
to fight shy of sth — einer Sache (dat) aus dem Weg gehen
I've always fought shy of claiming that... — ich habe immer bewusst vermieden, zu behaupten...
3. vt1) person kämpfen mit or gegen; (= have punch-up with) sich schlagen mit, sich prügeln mit; (in battle) kämpfen mit, sich (dat) ein Gefecht nt liefern mit2) fire, disease, cuts, policy, crime, inflation bekämpfen; decision ankämpfen gegen; corruption angehen gegenthere's no point in fighting it, you can't win — es hat keinen Zweck, dagegen anzukämpfen, es ist aussichtslos
she fought the urge to giggle — sie versuchte, sich das Kichern zu verkneifen
3)to fight a duel — ein Duell nt austragen, sich duellieren
to fight pitched battles — sich (dat) offene Gefechte liefern
See:→ also battle4) (MIL, NAUT: control in battle) army, ships kommandieren* * *fight [faıt]A s1. Kampf m:a) MIL Gefecht nb) Konflikt m, Streit mgive sth up without a fight etwas kampflos aufgeben;lose the fight over den Kampf verlieren um;make (a) fight (for sth) (um etwas) kämpfen;put up a (good) fight einen (guten) Kampf liefern, sich tapfer schlagen;fight against drugs Drogenbekämpfung f;the fight against unemployment der Kampf gegen die Arbeitslosigkeitfight record Kampfrekord m3. Schlägerei f, Rauferei f:have a fight (with) → C 34. Kampffähigkeit f, Kampf(es)lust f:a) sich zur Wehr setzen,b) kampflustig sein;there was no fight left in him er war kampfmüde oder umg fertig;he still had a lot of fight in him er war noch lange nicht geschlagenB v/t prät und pperf fought [fɔːt]1. jemanden, etwas bekämpfen, bekriegen, kämpfen gegen3. etwas verfechten, sich einsetzen füra) gegen eine Erkältung ankämpfen,5. raufen oder sich prügeln mit6. erkämpfen:fight one’s wayb) fig seinen Weg machen, sich durchschlagen;fight one’s way to sth sich etwas erkämpfen8. Truppen, Geschütze etc kommandieren, (im Kampf) führenC v/ifight against sth gegen etwas ankämpfen;2. SPORT boxen* * *1. intransitive verb,1) (lit. or fig.) kämpfen; (with fists) sich schlagenfight shy of somebody/something — jemandem/einer Sache aus dem Weg gehen
2) (squabble) [sich] streiten, [sich] zanken ( about wegen)2. transitive verb,1) (in battle)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas kämpfen; (using fists)
fight somebody — sich mit jemandem schlagen; [Boxer:] gegen jemanden boxen
2) (seek to overcome) bekämpfen; (resist)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas ankämpfen
3)be fighting a losing battle — (fig.) auf verlorenem Posten stehen od. kämpfen
4) führen [Kampagne]; kandidieren bei [Wahl]5)fight one's way — sich (Dat.) den Weg freikämpfen; (fig.) sich (Dat.) seinen Weg bahnen
3. nounfight one's way to the top — (fig.) sich an die Spitze kämpfen
make a fight of it, put up a fight — sich wehren; (fig.) sich zur Wehr setzen
give in without a fight — (fig.) klein beigeben
2) (squabble) Streit, derall the fight had gone out of him — (fig.) sein Kampfgeist war erloschen
Phrasal Verbs:* * *n.Kampf ¨-e m.Schlacht -en f.Streit -e m. (battle) one's way through expr.sich durchboxen v. v.(§ p.,p.p.: fought)= kämpfen v.sich streiten v. -
8 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
9 fight
[faɪt] n1) ( violent combat) Kampf m ( against/ for gegen/um +akk); ( brawl) Rauferei f; ( involving fists) Schlägerei f;to give up without a \fight kampflos aufgeben5) ( quarrel) Streit;to have a \fight on one's hands Ärger am Hals haben ( fam)( show appetite for fighting) Kampfgeist demonstrieren, sich akk kampflustig zeigenPHRASES:\fight or flight! friss oder stirb! ( fam)to put up a [good] \fight sich akk [tapfer] zur Wehr setzen;1) ( combat violently) kämpfen;the children were \fighting in the playground die Kinder rauften sich auf dem Spielplatz;to \fight like cats and dogs wie Hund und Katze sein;to \fight with each other miteinander kämpfen2) ( wage war) kämpfen;to \fight to the death auf Leben und Tod kämpfen;to \fight to the bitter end bis zum bitteren Ende kämpfen;to \fight to the finish bis zum Schluss [o letzten Augenblick] kämpfen;to \fight on weiterkämpfen, den Kampf fortsetzen;to \fight for the winning side für die Sieger kämpfen;to \fight with sb ( battle against) gegen jdn kämpfen;( battle on same side) an jds Seite f kämpfen4) ( struggle) kämpfen;to \fight to clear one's name um seinen guten Ruf kämpfen;to \fight against sth gegen etw akk [an]kämpfen, etw bekämpfen;to \fight against sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfen;to \fight for sth um etw akk kämpfen;to \fight for breath nach Luft ringen;to \fight for a cause für eine Sache kämpfen;to \fight for life um sein Leben kämpfen5) boxing boxen;to \fight against sb gegen jdn boxen vt <fought, fought>1) ( wage war)to \fight sb/ sth gegen jdn/etw kämpfen;to \fight a delaying action den Feind im Kampf hinhalten;to \fight a battle eine Schlacht schlagen;to \fight a duel ein Duell austragen, sich akk duellierento \fight ships/ troops Schiffe/Truppen kommandieren3) ( struggle to extinguish)to \fight a fire ein Feuer bekämpfen, gegen ein Feuer ankämpfen4) ( strive to win)to \fight an action einen Prozess durchkämpfen;to \fight sb for sth gegen jdn wegen einer S. gen einen Prozess führen5) (struggle against, resist)to \fight sth etw bekämpfen, gegen etw akk [an]kämpfen;to \fight crime das Verbrechen bekämpfen;to \fight a disease gegen eine Krankheit ankämpfen;to \fight sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfen6) ( in boxing)to \fight sb gegen jdn boxen7) ( battle)to \fight one's way through the crowd sich dat einen Weg durch die Menge bahnen;to \fight one's way to the top sich akk an die Spitze kämpfenPHRASES:to \fight a losing battle auf verlorenem Posten kämpfen;to \fight one's corner ( Brit) seinen Standpunkt verfechten;to \fight fire with fire mit den gleichen Waffen kämpfen;to not be able to \fight one's way out of a brown paper bag absolut bescheuert sein ( fam)to \fight shy of sb/ sth jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen -
10 cry
1. noun1) (of grief) Schrei, der; (of words) Schreien, das; Geschrei, das; (of hounds or wolves) Heulen, dasa cry of pain/rage — ein Schmerzens-/Wutschrei
a far cry from... — (fig.) etwas ganz anderes als...
3) (fit or spell of weeping)2. transitive verb1) rufen; (loudly) schreien2) (weep) weinencry one's eyes out — sich (Dat.) die Augen ausweinen
3. intransitive verbcry oneself to sleep — sich in den Schlaf weinen
1) rufen; (loudly) schreiencry [out] for something/somebody — nach etwas/jemandem rufen od. schreien
cry with pain — vor Schmerz[en] schreien
cry for something — nach etwas weinen; (fig.) einer Sache (Dat.) nachweinen
3) [Möwe:] schreienPhrasal Verbs:- academic.ru/17603/cry_off">cry off- cry out* * *1. verb1) (to let tears come from the eyes; to weep: She cried when she heard of the old man's death.) weinen2. noun1) (a shout: a cry of triumph.) der Schrei2) (a time of weeping: The baby had a little cry before he went to sleep.) das Weinen3) (the sound made by some animals: the cry of a wolf.) der Schrei•- a far cry- cry off* * *<- ie->[kraɪ]I. nto have a \cry sich akk ausweinenhave a good \cry wein dich ruhig austhey were wakened by cries of ‘fire!’ sie wachten auf, weil jemand [mehrmals] laut ‚Feuer!‘ schriea \cry of pain/pleasure ein Schmerzens-/Freudenschrei m\cry for help Hilferuf m, Hilfeschrei m6.that's a far \cry from the truth das hat mit der Wahrheit ziemlich wenig zu tunit's still a far \cry from what I expected of you das hätte ich nie von Ihnen erwartetwe all laughed until we cried wir alle lachten Tränento \cry for joy vor Freude weinenIII. vt▪ to \cry sth1. (shed tears) etw weinenshe cried bitter tears sie vergoss bittere Tränento \cry oneself to sleep sich akk in den Schlaf weinen2. (exclaim) etw rufen [o schreien]“help me!” he cried „Hilfe!“ schrie er3.▶ to \cry foul einen Regelverstoß [öffentlich] kritisieren▶ to \cry foul at sth etw [öffentlich] als Fehlverhalten kritisieren▶ to \cry wolf falschen Alarm geben* * *[kraɪ]1. nto give or utter a cry — (auf)schreien, einen Schrei ausstoßen
a cry of fear/pain — ein Angst-/Schmerzensschrei m
he gave a cry for help — er rief um Hilfe
See:→ far4)(= outcry)
a cry for sth — ein Ruf m nach etwa cry against sth — ein Protest m gegen etw
5)(= weep)
a cry will do you good — weine ruhig, das wird dir guttun2. vishe was crying for her teddy bear —
... or I'll give you something to cry about —... und dann weißt du, warum du heulst (inf)
to cry for help — um Hilfe rufen/schreien
she cried for a nurse/for somebody to come — sie rief/schrie nach einer Krankenschwester/nach jemandem
3. vt1) (= shout out) rufen; (louder) schreienhe cried to me to go away — er rief mir zu, dass ich verschwinden sollte
See:→ crying, wolf2) (= announce) ausrufen3) (= weep) bitter tears etc weinento cry one's eyes/heart out — sich (dat) die Augen ausweinen/herzzerreißend weinen
to cry on sb's shoulder — sich an jds Schulter or bei jdm ausweinen
* * *cry [kraı]A sfor nach):give a cry einen Schrei ausstoßen, aufschreien;a cry for help ein Hilferuf;a cry of joy ein Freudenschrei;a cry of pain ein Schmerzensschrei;within cry (of) in Rufweite (von);a far cry from figa) (himmel)weit entfernt von,b) etwas ganz anderes als;that’s still a far cry das ist noch in weiter Ferne oder noch Zukunftsmusik2. obs Geschrei n:the popular cry die Stimme des Volkes3. Weinen n:have a good cry sich richtig ausweinen4. Bitten n, Flehen n5. Ausrufen n, Geschrei n (der Straßenhändler):(all) the cry US fig der letzte Schreib) Schlag-, Losungswort n7. JAGD Anschlagen n, Gebell n (der Meute):in full cry in wilder Jagd oder Verfolgung8. JAGD Meute f, Koppel fB v/i2. schreien, (laut) rufen, dringend verlangen ( alle:for nach):cry for vengeance nach Rache schreiencry into one’s pillow in sein Kissen weinen;6. JAGD anschlagen, bellenC v/t2. Waren etc ausrufen, -bieten, -schreien3. flehen um, erflehen4. Tränen weinen:cry o.s. to sleep sich in den Schlaf weinen* * *1. noun1) (of grief) Schrei, der; (of words) Schreien, das; Geschrei, das; (of hounds or wolves) Heulen, dasa cry of pain/rage — ein Schmerzens-/Wutschrei
a far cry from... — (fig.) etwas ganz anderes als...
2) (appeal, entreaty) Appell, der2. transitive verb1) rufen; (loudly) schreien2) (weep) weinen3. intransitive verbcry one's eyes out — sich (Dat.) die Augen ausweinen
1) rufen; (loudly) schreiencry [out] for something/somebody — nach etwas/jemandem rufen od. schreien
cry with pain — vor Schmerz[en] schreien
cry for something — nach etwas weinen; (fig.) einer Sache (Dat.) nachweinen
3) [Möwe:] schreienPhrasal Verbs:- cry off- cry out* * *n.Ruf -e m.Schrei -e m. (for) v.rufen (nach) v.schreien (nach) v.weinen v. v.flennen v.heulen v.schreien v.(§ p.,pp.: schrie, geschrieen) -
11 anger
['æŋɡə] 1. noun(a violent, bitter feeling (against someone or something): He was filled with anger about the way he had been treated.) vrede2. verb(to make someone angry: His words angered her very much.) gøre vred- angry- angrily* * *['æŋɡə] 1. noun(a violent, bitter feeling (against someone or something): He was filled with anger about the way he had been treated.) vrede2. verb(to make someone angry: His words angered her very much.) gøre vred- angry- angrily -
12 rencor
rencor sustantivo masculino resentment; no te guardo rencor I don't bear you any grudge; siento rencor por lo que me hizo I feel bitter about what he did to me
rencor sustantivo masculino rancour, US rancor, resentment
guardar rencor, to bear a grudge [a, against]
sentir rencor, to feel bitter ' rencor' also found in these entries: Spanish: albergar - lanzar - pecho - guardar - resentido English: animosity - bitterness - grudge - hold against - ill feeling - ill-feeling - nastily - nastiness - rancor - rancour - spite - spitefully - spitefulness - spleen - vindictiveness - will - bear - harbor - ill - resent - resentment -
13 cry
I [kraɪ]1) (shout, call) (of person) grido m., urlo m.; (of bird) verso m., richiamo m.there were cries of "shame!" — la gente gridava allo scandalo
2) (weep)to have a good cry — colloq. farsi un bel pianto
3)to be in full cry — [ pack of hounds] abbaiare forte
the press were in full cry against them — BE fig. la stampa si scagliava o si accaniva contro di loro
••II 1. [kraɪ]this small house is a far cry from the palace where she was born — non c'è confronto fra questa piccola casa e il palazzo in cui è nata
1) (shout)"look out!" he cried — "attenzione!" gridò
2) (weep)2.to cry with laughter — ridere fino alle lacrime, piangere dal ridere
•- cry down- cry off- cry out••to cry one's eyes o heart out — piangere tutte le proprie lacrime, piangere a dirotto
* * *1. verb1) (to let tears come from the eyes; to weep: She cried when she heard of the old man's death.) piangere2) ((often with out) to shout out (a loud sound): She cried out for help.) gridare2. noun1) (a shout: a cry of triumph.) grido2) (a time of weeping: The baby had a little cry before he went to sleep.) pianto3) (the sound made by some animals: the cry of a wolf.) verso, richiamo•- cry off* * *I [kraɪ]1) (shout, call) (of person) grido m., urlo m.; (of bird) verso m., richiamo m.there were cries of "shame!" — la gente gridava allo scandalo
2) (weep)to have a good cry — colloq. farsi un bel pianto
3)to be in full cry — [ pack of hounds] abbaiare forte
the press were in full cry against them — BE fig. la stampa si scagliava o si accaniva contro di loro
••II 1. [kraɪ]this small house is a far cry from the palace where she was born — non c'è confronto fra questa piccola casa e il palazzo in cui è nata
1) (shout)"look out!" he cried — "attenzione!" gridò
2) (weep)2.to cry with laughter — ridere fino alle lacrime, piangere dal ridere
•- cry down- cry off- cry out••to cry one's eyes o heart out — piangere tutte le proprie lacrime, piangere a dirotto
-
14 turn
tə:n
1. verb1) (to (make something) move or go round; to revolve: The wheels turned; He turned the handle.) girar2) (to face or go in another direction: He turned and walked away; She turned towards him.) dar media vuelta, girarse3) (to change direction: The road turned to the left.) girar4) (to direct; to aim or point: He turned his attention to his work.) dirigir; desviar5) (to go round: They turned the corner.) doblar6) (to (cause something to) become or change to: You can't turn lead into gold; At what temperature does water turn into ice?) volverse, convertirse, transformarse7) (to (cause to) change colour to: Her hair turned white; The shock turned his hair white.) volverse
2. noun1) (an act of turning: He gave the handle a turn.) giro2) (a winding or coil: There are eighty turns of wire on this aerial.) vuelta3) ((also turning) a point where one can change direction, eg where one road joins another: Take the third turn(ing) on/to the left.) curva, recodo4) (one's chance or duty (to do, have etc something shared by several people): It's your turn to choose a record; You'll have to wait your turn in the bathroom.) turno5) (one of a series of short circus or variety acts, or the person or persons who perform it: The show opened with a comedy turn.) número•- turnover
- turnstile
- turntable
- turn-up
- by turns
- do someone a good turn
- do a good turn
- in turn
- by turns
- out of turn
- speak out of turn
- take a turn for the better
- worse
- take turns
- turn a blind eye
- turn against
- turn away
- turn back
- turn down
- turn in
- turn loose
- turn off
- turn on
- turn out
- turn over
- turn up
turn1 n1. turno2. calleturn2 vb1. girar / dar vueltas2. girar / torcerturn right at the traffic lights en el semáforo, gira a la derecha3. dar la vuelta4. pasar / volver5. volverse / darse la vuelta6. volverse / ponersetr[tɜːn]1 (act of turning) vuelta2 (change of direction) giro, vuelta; (bend) curva, recodo3 (chance, go) turno■ whose turn is it? ¿a quién le toca?4 (change) cambio, giro5 (short walk) vuelta, paseo7 (act of kindness, favour) favor nombre masculino8 SMALLTHEATRE/SMALL (act) número1 (rotate) girar, hacer girar, dar la vuelta a3 (cause to change direction) girar, dar la vuelta a■ about turn! ¡media vuelta!4 (invert) darle la vuelta a■ it turned her into a different person la convirtió en una persona diferente, la convirtió en otra persona6 (pass) pasar■ it's turned twelve pasan de las doce, son más de las doce, son las doce pasadas7 (fold) doblar8 (shape) tornear, labrar en un torno1 (revolve) girar, dar vueltas2 (change direction - person) girarse, dar la vuelta, volverse; (- car) girar, torcer; (- plane, ship) virar; (- tide) repuntar■ it has turned from a small fishing village into a tourist resort de pueblecito de pescadores se ha convertido en centro turístico\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLat every turn a cada paso, a cada momentoby turns / in turns por turnos, sucesivamentein turn a su vez, por su parteon the turn a punto de cambiarone good turn deserves another favor con favor se pagaout of turn fuera de lugarto be badly turned out ir mal vestido,-ato be done to a turn / be cooked to a turn estar en su puntoto be well turned out ir bien vestido,-ato do somebody a good turn hacerle un favor a alguiento do somebody a bad turn hacer un mala pasada a alguiento take it in turns turnarseto turn free dejar en libertad, soltarto turn one's hand to something dedicarse a algoto turn somebody's head afectar mucho a alguien■ they turned the house inside out, but they couldn't find it revolvieron toda la casa, pero no lo encontraronturn and turn about por turnosturn of phrase manera de expresarseturn of the century finales nombre masculino plural de sigloturn of the screw vuelta del tornilloturn ['tərn] vt1) : girar, voltear, volverto turn one's head: voltear la cabezashe turned her chair toward the fire: giró su asiento hacia la hoguera2) rotate: darle vuelta a, hacer girarturn the handle: dale vuelta a la manivela3) sprain, wrench: dislocar, torcer4) upset: revolver (el estómago)5) transform: convertirto turn water into wine: convertir el agua en vino6) shape: tornear (en carpintería)turn vi1) rotate: girar, dar vueltas2) : girar, doblar, dar una vueltaturn left: doble a la izquierdato turn around: dar la media vuelta3) become: hacerse, volverse, ponerse4) sour: agriarse, cortarse (dícese de la leche)5)to turn to : recurrir athey have no one to turn to: no tienen quien les ayudeturn n1) : vuelta f, giro ma sudden turn: una vuelta repentina2) change: cambio m3) curve: curva f (en un camino)4) : turno mthey're awaiting their turn: están esperando su turnowhose turn is it?: ¿a quién le toca?v.• tornear v. (sth.) upexpr.• descubrir (algo) v.v.• cambiar v.• dar vueltas a v.• doblar v.• girar v.• recurrir v.• torcer v.• tornar v.• virar v.• volver v.n.• cambio s.m.• curva s.f.• giro s.m.• lance s.m.• recodo s.m.• retortero s.m.• revuelto s.m.• sesgo s.m.• torneado s.m.• torno s.m.• turno s.m.• vez s.f.• viraje s.m.• vuelta s.f.tɜːrn, tɜːn
I
1)a) ( rotation) vuelta fto a turn: the meat was done to a turn — la carne estaba hecha a la perfección, la carne estaba en su punto justo
b) ( change of direction) vuelta f, giro mno left turn — prohibido girar or doblar or torcer a la izquierda
take the next left/right turn — tome or (esp Esp) coja or (esp AmL) agarre la próxima a la izquierda/derecha
at every turn — a cada paso, a cada momento
d) (change, alteration)to take a turn for the better — empezar* a mejorar
to take a turn for the worse — empeorar, ponerse* peor
to be on the turn — \<\<events/tide\>\> estar* cambiando; \<\<leaves\>\> estar* cambiando de color; \<\<milk/food\>\> (BrE) estar* echándose a perder
2)a) ( place in sequence)whose turn is it? — ¿a quién le toca?
to take turns o to take it in turn(s) — turnarse
we'll take turns o we'll take it in turn(s) to do the cooking — nos vamos a turnar para cocinar, vamos a cocinar por turnos
b) (in phrases)in turn: each in turn was asked the same question a cada uno de ellos se le hizo la misma pregunta; out of turn: she realized she'd spoken out of turn — se dio cuenta de que su comentario (or interrupción etc) había estado fuera de lugar
3) ( service)to do somebody a good turn — hacerle* un favor a alguien
4) (form, style)she has a logical/practical turn of mind — es muy lógica/práctica
5)a) (bout of illness, disability)he had a funny turn — le dio un ataque (or un mareo etc)
b) ( nervous shock) susto m6) ( act) (esp BrE) número m
II
1.
1)a) ( rotate) \<\<knob/handle/wheel\>\> (hacer*) girarb) (set, regulate)to turn something to something: turn the knob to `hot' ponga el indicador en `caliente'; he turned the oven to a lower temperature — bajó la temperatura del horno
2)a) (change position, direction of) \<\<head\>\> volver*, voltear (AmL exc RPl)she turned her back on them — les volvió or les dio la espalda, les volteó la espalda (AmL exc RPl)
can you turn the TV this way a bit? — ¿puedes poner el televisor más para este lado?
b) (direct, apply)to turn something to something: I turned my mind to more pleasant thoughts me puse a pensar en cosas más agradables; the administration has turned its efforts to... la administración ha dirigido sus esfuerzos a...; they turned the situation to their own profit — utilizaron la situación para su propio provecho; advantage b)
3)a) ( reverse) \<\<mattress/omelette\>\> darle* la vuelta a, voltear (AmL exc CS), dar* vuelta (CS); \<\<page\>\> pasar, volver*, dar* vuelta (CS); \<\<soil\>\> remover*, voltear (AmL exc CS), dar* vuelta (CS)he turned the card face down — puso or volvió la carta boca abajo
b) ( upset)4)a) ( go around) \<\<corner\>\> dar* la vuelta a, dar* vuelta (CS)b) ( pass)5) ( send)I couldn't simply turn him from my door — no le podía negar ayuda, no le podía volver la espalda; loose I 2)
6)a) (change, transform) volver*to turn something to/into something — transformar or convertir* algo en algo
they've turned the place into a pigsty! — han puesto la casa (or la habitación etc) como una pocilga!
b) ( make sour) \<\<milk\>\> agriarc) ( confuse) \<\<mind\>\> trastornar7)a) ( shape - on lathe) tornear; (- on potter's wheel) hacer*b) ( formulate)a well-turned phrase — una frase elegante or pulida
8) ( make) \<\<profit\>\> sacar*
2.
vi1) ( rotate) \<\<handle/wheel\>\> girar, dar* vuelta(s)the outcome of the election turns on one crucial factor — el resultado de las elecciones depende de un factor decisivo
2)a) ( to face in different direction) \<\<person\>\> volverse*, darse* la vuelta, voltearse (AmL exc CS), darse* vuelta (CS); \<\<car\>\> dar* la vuelta, dar* vuelta (CS)she turned to me with a smile — me miró sonriéndome, se volvió hacia mí con una sonrisa
he turned onto his side — se volvió or se puso de lado
left/right turn! — (BrE Mil) media vuelta a la izquierda/derecha!
b) (change course, direction)the army then turned north — entonces el ejército cambió de rumbo, dirigiéndose al norte
to turn left/right — girar or doblar or torcer* a la izquierda/derecha
c) ( curve) \<\<road/river\>\> torcer*3)a) ( focus on)to turn to another subject — pasar a otro tema, cambiar de tema
b) (resort, have recourse to)to turn to violence/a friend — recurrir a la violencia/un amigo
to turn to drink — darse* a la bebida
to turn to somebody/something for something: she turned to her parents for support recurrió or acudió a sus padres en busca de apoyo; he turned to nature for inspiration — buscó inspiración en la naturaleza
4)a) ( become)Ed Wright, naturalist turned politician — Ed Wright, naturalista convertido en or vuelto político
b) ( be transformed)to turn into something — convertirse* en algo
water turns into steam — el agua se convierte or se transforma en vapor
to turn to something — (liter) convertirse* en algo
c) ( change) \<\<luck/weather/tide\>\> cambiard) ( change color) \<\<leaves\>\> cambiar de colore) ( go sour) \<\<milk\>\> agriarse5) ( when reading)turn to page 19 — abran el libro en la página 19, vayan a la página 19
6) (AmE Busn) \<\<merchandise\>\> venderse•Phrasal Verbs:- turn in- turn off- turn on- turn out- turn up[tɜːn]1. N1) (=rotation) vuelta f, revolución f; [of spiral] espira f•
he gave the handle a turn — dio vuelta a la palanca•
to give a screw another turn — apretar un tornillo una vuelta más2) (Aut) (in road) vuelta f, curva fto do a left turn — (Aut) doblar or girar a la izquierda
3) (Aut) (=turn-off) salida f4) (Naut) viraje m5) (Swimming) vuelta f6) (=change of direction)•
at every turn — (fig) a cada paso•
to be on the turn, the tide is on the turn — la marea está cambiandothe economy may at last be on the turn — puede que por fin la economía de un giro importante or cambie de signo
•
things took a new turn — las cosas tomaron otro cariz or aspectowhose turn is it? — ¿a quién le toca?
it's her turn next — le toca a ella después, ella es la primera en turno
•
turn and turn about — cada uno por turno, ahora esto y luego aquello•
by turns — por turnos, sucesivamente•
to give up one's turn — ceder la vez•
in turn — por turnos, sucesivamenteand they, in turn, said... — y ellos a su vez dijeron...
•
to miss one's turn — perder la vez or el turnoto speak out of turn — (fig) hablar fuera de lugar
•
to take one's turn — llegarle (a algn) su turnoto take turns at doing sth — alternar or turnarse para hacer algo
•
to wait one's turn — esperar (algn) su turno8) (=short walk) vuelta f9) (Med) (=fainting fit etc) vahído m, desmayo m; (=crisis) crisis f inv, ataque m10) * (=fright) susto mthe news gave me quite a turn — la noticia me asustó or dejó de piedra
11) (esp Brit) (Theat) número m, turno m12) (=deed)•
to do sb a bad turn — hacer una mala pasada a algn•
to do sb a good turn — hacerle un favor a algn13) (Culin)14) (=inclination)an odd turn of mind — una manera retorcida or (LAm) chueca de pensar
to be of or have a scientific turn of mind — ser más dado a las ciencias
15) (=expression)turn of phrase — forma f de hablar, giro m
2. VT1) (=rotate) [+ wheel, handle] girar, dar vueltas a; [+ screw] atornillar, destornillar•
you can turn it through 90° — se puede girarlo hasta 90 grados•
turn it to the left — dale una vuelta hacia la izquierda2) (also: turn over) [+ record, mattress, steak] dar la vuelta a, voltear (LAm); [+ page] pasar; [+ soil] revolver; [+ hay] volver al revés•
to turn a dress inside out — volver un vestido del revés- turn the page3) (=direct) dirigir, volver•
they turned him against us — le pusieron en contra nuestra•
to turn one's attention to sth — concentrar su atención en algo•
to turn one's eyes in sb's direction — volver la mirada hacia donde está algn•
to turn a gun on sb — apuntar una pistola a algn•
the fireman turned the hose on the building — el bombero dirigió la manguera hacia el edificio•
to turn the lights (down) low — poner la luz más baja•
to turn one's steps homeward — dirigirse a casa, volver los pasos hacia casa•
to turn one's thoughts to sth — concentrarse en algo- turn the other cheekto turn one's hand to sth —
- turn sb's head: earning all that money has turned his/her headalready in her first film she turned a few heads — ya en su primera película la gente se fijó en ella
- turn the tables4) (=pass) doblar, dar la vuelta ait's turned four o'clock — son las cuatro y pico or (esp LAm) las cuatro pasadas
- have turned the corner5) (=change)the heat turned the walls black — el calor volvió negras las paredes, el calor ennegreció las paredes
the shock turned her hair white — del susto, el pelo se le puso blanco
his goal turned the game — (Brit) su gol le dio un vuelco al partido
•
to turn sth into sth — convertir algo en algo•
she turned her dreams to reality — hizo sus sueños realidad, realizó sus sueños6) (=deflect) [+ blow] desviar7) (=shape) [+ wood, metal] tornearwell-turned8) (Culin)9)to turn a profit — (esp US) sacar un beneficio, tener ganancias
3. VI1) (=rotate) [wheel etc] girar, dar vueltas•
the object turned on a stand — el objeto giraba en un pedestal•
his stomach turned at the sight — al verlo se le revolvió el estómago, se le revolvieron las tripas al verlo *toss 3., 1)to turn in one's grave —
2) (=change direction) [person] dar la vuelta, voltearse (LAm); [tide] repuntarto turn and go back — volverse or dar la vuelta y regresar
right turn! — (Mil) derecha... ¡ar!
the game turned after half-time — (Brit) el partido dio un vuelco tras el descanso
•
to turn against sb — volverse contra algn•
to turn for home — volver hacia casa•
farmers are turning from cows to pigs — los granjeros cambian de vacas a cerdos•
then our luck turned — luego mejoramos de suerte•
to turn to sb/sth, he turned to me and smiled — se volvió hacia mí y sonrióour thoughts turn to those who... — pensamos ahora en los que...
he turned to drink — se dio a la bebida, le dio por el alcohol
•
I don't know which way to turn — (fig) no sé qué hacer•
I don't know where to turn for money — no sé en qué parte ir a buscar dinero•
the wind has turned — el viento ha cambiado de dirección3) (Aut) torcer, girar; (Aer, Naut) virarto turn left — (Aut) torcer or girar or doblar a la izquierda
•
the car turned into a lane — el coche se metió en una bocacalle•
to turn to port — (Naut) virar a babor4) (=change)•
to turn into sth — convertirse or transformarse en algothe princess turned into a toad — la princesa se transformó en sapo, la princesa quedó transformada en sapo
•
the leaves were turning — se estaban descolorando or dorando las hojas•
the milk has turned — la leche se ha cortado•
it turned to stone — se convirtió en piedrahis admiration turned to scorn — su admiración se tornó or se transformó en desprecio
•
to wait for the weather to turn — esperar a que cambie el tiempo5) (=become)•
the weather or it has turned cold — el tiempo se ha puesto frío, se ha echado el frío6) (=depend)•
everything turns on his decision — todo depende de su decisióneverything turns on whether... — todo depende de si...
4.CPDturn signal N — (US) (Aut) indicador m (de dirección)
- turn in- turn off- turn on- turn out- turn to- turn up* * *[tɜːrn, tɜːn]
I
1)a) ( rotation) vuelta fto a turn: the meat was done to a turn — la carne estaba hecha a la perfección, la carne estaba en su punto justo
b) ( change of direction) vuelta f, giro mno left turn — prohibido girar or doblar or torcer a la izquierda
take the next left/right turn — tome or (esp Esp) coja or (esp AmL) agarre la próxima a la izquierda/derecha
at every turn — a cada paso, a cada momento
d) (change, alteration)to take a turn for the better — empezar* a mejorar
to take a turn for the worse — empeorar, ponerse* peor
to be on the turn — \<\<events/tide\>\> estar* cambiando; \<\<leaves\>\> estar* cambiando de color; \<\<milk/food\>\> (BrE) estar* echándose a perder
2)a) ( place in sequence)whose turn is it? — ¿a quién le toca?
to take turns o to take it in turn(s) — turnarse
we'll take turns o we'll take it in turn(s) to do the cooking — nos vamos a turnar para cocinar, vamos a cocinar por turnos
b) (in phrases)in turn: each in turn was asked the same question a cada uno de ellos se le hizo la misma pregunta; out of turn: she realized she'd spoken out of turn — se dio cuenta de que su comentario (or interrupción etc) había estado fuera de lugar
3) ( service)to do somebody a good turn — hacerle* un favor a alguien
4) (form, style)she has a logical/practical turn of mind — es muy lógica/práctica
5)a) (bout of illness, disability)he had a funny turn — le dio un ataque (or un mareo etc)
b) ( nervous shock) susto m6) ( act) (esp BrE) número m
II
1.
1)a) ( rotate) \<\<knob/handle/wheel\>\> (hacer*) girarb) (set, regulate)to turn something to something: turn the knob to `hot' ponga el indicador en `caliente'; he turned the oven to a lower temperature — bajó la temperatura del horno
2)a) (change position, direction of) \<\<head\>\> volver*, voltear (AmL exc RPl)she turned her back on them — les volvió or les dio la espalda, les volteó la espalda (AmL exc RPl)
can you turn the TV this way a bit? — ¿puedes poner el televisor más para este lado?
b) (direct, apply)to turn something to something: I turned my mind to more pleasant thoughts me puse a pensar en cosas más agradables; the administration has turned its efforts to... la administración ha dirigido sus esfuerzos a...; they turned the situation to their own profit — utilizaron la situación para su propio provecho; advantage b)
3)a) ( reverse) \<\<mattress/omelette\>\> darle* la vuelta a, voltear (AmL exc CS), dar* vuelta (CS); \<\<page\>\> pasar, volver*, dar* vuelta (CS); \<\<soil\>\> remover*, voltear (AmL exc CS), dar* vuelta (CS)he turned the card face down — puso or volvió la carta boca abajo
b) ( upset)4)a) ( go around) \<\<corner\>\> dar* la vuelta a, dar* vuelta (CS)b) ( pass)5) ( send)I couldn't simply turn him from my door — no le podía negar ayuda, no le podía volver la espalda; loose I 2)
6)a) (change, transform) volver*to turn something to/into something — transformar or convertir* algo en algo
they've turned the place into a pigsty! — han puesto la casa (or la habitación etc) como una pocilga!
b) ( make sour) \<\<milk\>\> agriarc) ( confuse) \<\<mind\>\> trastornar7)a) ( shape - on lathe) tornear; (- on potter's wheel) hacer*b) ( formulate)a well-turned phrase — una frase elegante or pulida
8) ( make) \<\<profit\>\> sacar*
2.
vi1) ( rotate) \<\<handle/wheel\>\> girar, dar* vuelta(s)the outcome of the election turns on one crucial factor — el resultado de las elecciones depende de un factor decisivo
2)a) ( to face in different direction) \<\<person\>\> volverse*, darse* la vuelta, voltearse (AmL exc CS), darse* vuelta (CS); \<\<car\>\> dar* la vuelta, dar* vuelta (CS)she turned to me with a smile — me miró sonriéndome, se volvió hacia mí con una sonrisa
he turned onto his side — se volvió or se puso de lado
left/right turn! — (BrE Mil) media vuelta a la izquierda/derecha!
b) (change course, direction)the army then turned north — entonces el ejército cambió de rumbo, dirigiéndose al norte
to turn left/right — girar or doblar or torcer* a la izquierda/derecha
c) ( curve) \<\<road/river\>\> torcer*3)a) ( focus on)to turn to another subject — pasar a otro tema, cambiar de tema
b) (resort, have recourse to)to turn to violence/a friend — recurrir a la violencia/un amigo
to turn to drink — darse* a la bebida
to turn to somebody/something for something: she turned to her parents for support recurrió or acudió a sus padres en busca de apoyo; he turned to nature for inspiration — buscó inspiración en la naturaleza
4)a) ( become)Ed Wright, naturalist turned politician — Ed Wright, naturalista convertido en or vuelto político
b) ( be transformed)to turn into something — convertirse* en algo
water turns into steam — el agua se convierte or se transforma en vapor
to turn to something — (liter) convertirse* en algo
c) ( change) \<\<luck/weather/tide\>\> cambiard) ( change color) \<\<leaves\>\> cambiar de colore) ( go sour) \<\<milk\>\> agriarse5) ( when reading)turn to page 19 — abran el libro en la página 19, vayan a la página 19
6) (AmE Busn) \<\<merchandise\>\> venderse•Phrasal Verbs:- turn in- turn off- turn on- turn out- turn up -
15 resentment
rɪˈzentmənt сущ. негодование, возмущение;
чувство обиды (about;
against;
at, towards) to arouse, stir up resentment ≈ вызывать негодование to bear, feel, harbor resentment ≈ негодовать, возмущаться to express, voice resentment ≈ выражать негодование to have/bear no resentment against smb. ≈ не чувствовать обиды на кого-л., не таить злобы против кого-л. bitter, deep, profound, sullen resentment ≈ горькая обида, глубокое разочарование They felt resentment that nobody paid attention to their request. ≈ Они обиделись, что никто не обратил внимания на их просьбу. Syn: huff, offence, pique, umbrage Ant: patience, pleasure негодование, возмущение, чувство обиды - to bear /to have/ no * against smb. не чувствовать обиды на кого-л. - to harbour /to cherish/ * against smb. затаить злобу против кого-л. resentment негодование, возмущение;
чувство обиды;
to have (или to bear) no resentment (against smb.) не чувствовать обиды (на кого-л.), не таить злобы (против кого-л.) resentment негодование, возмущение;
чувство обиды;
to have (или to bear) no resentment (against smb.) не чувствовать обиды (на кого-л.), не таить злобы (против кого-л.)Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > resentment
-
16 argument
ˈɑ:ɡjumənt сущ.
1) довод, аргумент( for - в пользу чего-л.;
against - против чего-л.) to drive home arguments, press arguments ≈ выдвигать доказательства to offer an argument, present an argument, put forward an argument ≈ выдвинуть аргумент to confute an argument, rebut an argument, refute an argument ≈ опровергать аргумент airtight, solid, sound, telling, trenchant, valid argument ≈ веский аргумент, веское доказательство compelling, convincing, persuasive argument ≈ убедительный аргумент irrefutable argument, unassailable argument ≈ неопровержимое доказательство cogent, balanced, logical, rational argument ≈ четкий, ясный аргумент groundless, tenuous, weak argument ≈ безосновательный довод, слабое доказательство spurious argument ≈ подложное доказательство She presented a convincing argument against the proposal. ≈ Она предоставила веское возражение против этого предложения. I cannot accept his argument that war is inevitable. ≈ Я не могу согласиться с его заявлением, что война неизбежна.
2) аргументация, доказательство Syn: argumentation, proof
1.
1), reasoning
3) дискуссия, обсуждение, прения, спор to get into argument, to have an argument ≈ вступить в спор to break off an argument, terminate an argument, clinch an argument, settle an argument ≈ решить спор, урегулировать конфликт heated, violent argument ≈ яростный, жаркий спор argument breaks out ≈ начинается спор a matter of argument ≈ спорный вопрос I had a bitter argument with him about politics. ≈ У меня с ним был жаркий спор на тему политики. Syn: discussion
2), disagreement
1), debate
1.
2), controversy
1)
4) краткое содержание, краткое изложение (обыкновенно литературного произведения) A later editor added an argument to the poem. ≈ Более поздний редактор добавил краткое изложение поэмы.
5) тема, основная идея( литературного произведения)
6) мат., вчт. аргумент, параметрдовод, доказательство, аргумент - weak * слабый довод - * from design( философское) телеологический довод - to refute *s опровергнуть доводы аргументация;
аргументированное выступление (в защиту) - let's settle this affair by * not by fighting давайте уладим дело обсуждением доводов каждой стороны, а не нападками друг на друга спор, дискуссия - an * with the referee спор с рефери - it is beyond * that... совершенно бесспорно, что... тема или основная идея (литературного произведения) - the central * of his paper was presented with clarity главная тема его работы была изложена ясно краткое содержание( книги) (логика) средний термин силлогизма (математика) аргумент, независимая переменная (информатика) (компьютерное) параметр - * list список параметров - * passing передача параметровactual ~ вчт. фактический параметрargument мат. аргумент, независимая переменная ~ вчт. аргумент ~ аргумент ~ аргументация ~ дискуссия, спор;
a matter of argument спорный вопрос ~ дискуссия ~ довод, аргумент (for - в пользу (чего-л.) ;
against - против (чего-л.)) ;
a strong argument убедительный довод;
a weak argument слабый довод ~ довод ~ доказательство ~ краткое содержание (книги) ~ вчт. независимая переменная ~ вчт. параметр ~ спор ~ суждениеblock ~ вчт. аргумент блокаdummy ~ вчт. фиктивный параметрexhausted ~ вчт. исчерпанный параметрfunctional ~ вчт. функциональный аргумент~ дискуссия, спор;
a matter of argument спорный вопросmediation ~ опосредованное доказательствоmoving ~ вчт. динамичный аргументsales ~ коммерческий аргумент~ довод, аргумент (for - в пользу (чего-л.) ;
against - против (чего-л.)) ;
a strong argument убедительный довод;
a weak argument слабый довод~ довод, аргумент (for - в пользу (чего-л.) ;
against - против (чего-л.)) ;
a strong argument убедительный довод;
a weak argument слабый доводБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > argument
-
17 level
ˈlevl
1. сущ.
1) уровень at, on a level ≈ на уровне( чего-л.) at sea level ≈ на уровне моря on a level with smth. ≈ на одном уровне с чем-л. to reach a level ≈ достичь уровня eye level ≈ уровень глаз ground level ≈ уровень земли water level ≈ уровень воды
2) степень, ступень, уровень at the highest levels ≈ на высшем уровне on the international level ≈ на международном уровне to bring smb. to his level ≈ сбить спесь с кого-л., поставить кого-л. на место to rise to higher levels ≈ подниматься на более высокую ступень the analysis of meaning at the phonetic, morphological, syntactical, and semantic levels ≈ анализ значения на фонетическом, морфологическом, синтаксическом и семантическом уровнях to land on the street level ид. ≈ потерять работу, оказаться на улице action level ≈ пороговая доза вещества (особ. вредного для организма) ;
предельно допустимая концентрация( нежелательного вещества в пищевом продукте) high level ≈ высокая ступень level of confidence, level of significance ≈ уровень достоверности, степень уверенности low level ≈ низкая ступень energy level ≈ энергетический уровень poverty level ≈ прожиточный минимум international level ≈ международный уровень state level ≈ государственный уровень find one's own level
3) а) плоская, горизонтальная поверхность б) равнина
4) ватерпас, нивелир;
уровень (инструмент)
5) измерять горизонтальность поверхности уровнем, нивелиром
6) горн. этаж, горизонт;
штольня
7) авиац. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) to give a level ≈ перейти в горизонтальный полет
2. прил.
1) а) плоский, ровный The floor was level. ≈ Пол был ровный. a plateau of fairly level ground ≈ довольно плоское плато the level waves of broad Garonne ≈ гладкая водная поверхность широкой Гаронны б) находящийся на одном уровне (с чем-л.) He leaned over the counter so his face was almost level with the boy's. ≈ Он перегнулся через стойку, так что его лицо оказалось почти на одном уровне с лицом мальчика. Amy knelt down so that their eyes were level. ≈ Эми опустилась на колени, и их глаза оказались на одном уровне. в) горизонтальный Syn: horizontal
2. г) кул. полный без верха Stir in 1 level teaspoon of yeast. ≈ Размешайте 1 чайную ложку без верха закваски. Ant: heaped
2) одинаковый, равный I have done my best to keep level with the latest results of foreign investigation. ≈ Я старался не отставать от самых последних зарубежных исследований. The teams were level at the end of extra time. ≈ В дополнительное время команды сравнялись в счете. Syn: equal
1., identical
3) а) твердый, устойчивый She gave him a level look. ≈ Она твердо на него посмотрела. Syn: steady
1. б) спокойный, уравновешенный to speak in level tones ≈ говорить спокойным тоном He forced his voice to remain level. ≈ Он заставил себя говорить спокойным тоном. Syn: balanced, calm
1., even-tempered в) сбалансированный, разумный arrive at a justly proportional and level judgement on this affair( Sir Winston Churchill) ≈ достигли справедливого по отношению ко всем сторонам и разумного решения по этому вопросу level life ≈ размеренный образ жизни Syn: reasonable ∙ to do one's level best ≈ проявить максимум энергии;
сделать все от себя зависящее
3. нареч. вровень, ровно to fill the glass level with the top ≈ наполнить стакан до краев the horses ran level with one another ≈ лошади бежали голова в голову Syn: even, abreast
4. гл.
1) равнять, выравнивать to level a field ≈ выровнять поле Syn: smooth
3., smooth over, smooth away
2) уничтожить, сравнять с землей Further tremors could level more buildings. ≈ Последующие толчки могли бы уничтожить еще больше домов. The storm levelled sugar plantations and destroyed homes. ≈ Ураган полностью уничтожил сахарные плантации и разрушил дома. Syn: raze
3) геод. определять разность высот;
нивелировать
4) уравнивать love levels all ranks (W. S. Gilbert) ≈ любовь сглаживает все различия Iglesias scored twice to level the score. ≈ Иглесиас выиграл два очка и сравнял счет. Syn: equalize
5) а) наводить оружие, целиться (at) He said thousands of Koreans still levelled guns at one another along the demilitarised zone. ≈ Он сказал, что тысячи корейцев до сих пор направляют ружья друг на друга в демилитаризованной зоне. б) направлять, нацеливать (at, against - против кого-л.) Allegations of corruption were levelled at him and his family. ≈ Ему и его семье были брошены обвинения в коррупции. He leveled bitter criticism against the government. ≈ Он направил резкую критику в адрес правительства. ∙ Syn: aim
2., direct
3.
6) сл. быть откровенным (with - с кем-л.) I'll level with you, I'm no great detective. ≈ Буду с вами откровенным, я не являюсь великим сыщиком. He has leveled with the American people about his role in the affair. ≈ Он честно рассказал американскому народу о своей роли в этом деле. ∙ level against level at level down level off level out level up level with уровень - the * of the sea, sea * уровень моря - the * of the coast высота берега над уровнем моря - * of significance уровень значимости (в статистике) - * gauge уровнемер - * indicator (техническое) указатель горизонтального положения, указатель уровня - at the same * на том же /таком же, одинаковом/ уровне - to be high above the * of the sea находиться высоко над уровнем моря - to reduce to one * довести до одного уровня одинаковый уровень - on a * на одном уровне - on a * with the banks вровень с берегами (о разлившейся реке) - to be on a * with smb. находиться /стоять, быть/ на одном уровне с кем-л.;
быть игроком одного класса с кем-л. - they are on a * mentally они не уступают друг другу в уме, по уму они равны ступень, степень;
уровень - a high * of excellence высокий уровень мастерства /совершенства/ - on /at/ the highest * на самом высоком уровне;
на уровне глав правительств /государств/;
в верхах, в высших сферах - on /at/ a low * на низком уровне;
в низших инстанциях - to rise to higher *s подниматься на более высокую ступень, достигать более высокого уровня - to bring smb. to his * поставить кого-л. на место;
сбить спесь с кого-л. - acting on the * of amateurs исполнение( роли) на любительском уровне - he is not of her * он ей не пара плоскость, ровная горизонтальная поверхность;
горизонтальная линия - the shining * of the lake сияющая гладь озера - dead * совершенно ровная однообразная местность;
монотонный ландшафт;
однообразие, монотонность;
совершенно гладкая строго горизонтальная поверхность - (L.) равнина (в географических названиях) - Bedford L. Бедфордская равнина горизонтальное положение (the *) (редкое) поверхность Земли уровень (инструмента) ;
ватерпас;
нивелир - spirit * спиртовой уровень - plumb * уровень с отвесом измерения уровня с нивелиром ряд( в цирке, на стадионе) (горное) этаж;
горизонт горизонтальная выработка, штольня дренахная труба или канава( в штольне) (авиация) горизонтальный полет (тж. flignt) - to give a * перейти в горизонтальный полет (радиотехника) уровень (передачи) (устаревшее) прицеливание > on the * честно;
прямо, открыто, правдиво;
честный, прямой, правдивый > on the *! честное слово! > is it on the *? это правда?;
а ты не врешь? > is he on the *? ему можно верить? > to land on the street * оказаться на улице (потеряв работу) > to find one's (own) * найти себе равных;
найти свое место (в жизни, в науке) > he has found his own * он нашел себе подходящих друзей > he found his * among the older students он нашел свое место /прижился/ среди учащихся постарше > let the child find his own * не перегружай ребенка, пусть он развивается естественно ровный;
плоский;
горизонтальный - * road ровная /гладкая/ дорога - * surface ровная /плоская/ поверхность - * flyover горизонтальный полет - to make * выравнивать, сглаживать - the prairies are vast stretches of nearly * land прерии представляют собой обширные равнинные пространство находящийся на одном уровне (тж. перен.) - to attempt no work that is not * with one's capacities, to apply oneself to that which is * to one's capacities заниматься посильным делом - in the spring the rivers are often * with their bank весной реки часто поднимаются до самых берегов - buildings whose roofs are * with one another здания, крыши которых находятся на одном (и том же) уровне (кулинарное) (полный) без верха - two * spoonfuls of sugar две ложки сахара без верха равный, одинаковый;
ровный, равномерный - * life размеренная, спокойная жизнь - to speak in a * voice /in * tones/ говорить ровным голосом /тоном/;
не повышать голоса - to give smb. a * look пристально посмотреть на кого-л. преим. (спортивное) равный (по силе, подготовке и т. п.) - a * race гонки равных противников - to be * with other runners не отставать от других бегунов уравновешенный;
спокойный;
ровный - a * appraisal of the situation беспристрастная /объективная/ оценка положения - to have a * head иметь спокойный /уравновешенный/ характер;
быть рассудительным, быть хладнокровным - to keep a * head сохранять спокойствие;
не впадать в панику > to do one's * best сделать все возможное, сделать все от себя зависящее ровно;
вровень;
наравне - to fill a basin * with the brim наполнять таз до краев - to run * with another бежать вровень с кем-л.;
не отставать от кого-л. - to draw * with the other runners догнать других бегунов выравнивать, делать ровным, гладким (тж. * off) - to * a road выровнять дорогу - to * the tennis court with a roller укатать корт катком приводить в горизонтальное положение наводить (оружие) ;
нацеливать;
направлять (удар и т. п. против кого-л.) - to * one's gun at a tiger прицелиться в тигра направлять, бросать - to * looks /eyes/ on smb., smth. бросать взгляды на кого-л., что-л. - to * an accusation at /against/ smb. выдвинуть обвинение против кого-л. сровнять с землей;
полностью уничтожить - to * a building with the ground снести дом до основания - the city was *led by one atomic bomb город был стерт с лица земли одной единственной атомной бомбой (редкое) сбить с ног;
свалить на землю нивелировать, уравнивать, сглаживать различия - death *s all men перед смертью все равны (геодезия) определять разность высот, нивелировать сводить два или несколько звуков к одному( with) (сленг) говорить правду;
быть откровенным или честным (с кем-л.) appellate ~ уровень апелляции assurance ~ степень безопасности at the ~ на уровне bonus ~ размер премии breakeven ~ безубыточный уровень breakeven ~ объем реализации на уровне самоокупаемости to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место Cabinet ~ правительственный уровень confidence ~ доверительный уровень ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
сделать все от себя зависящее employment ~ уровень занятости exchange rate ~ уровень валютного курса ~ ровно, вровень;
to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место to find one's (own) ~ найти себе равных ~ ав. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) ;
to give a level перейти в горизонтальный полет ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
сделать все от себя зависящее ~ ровно, вровень;
to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову income ~ уровень дохода indirection ~ уровень косвенности intensity ~ уровень яркости interest ~ уровень ставок процента interest rate ~ уровень ставок процента intermediate ~ промежуточный уровень intervention ~ уровень интервенции investment ~ уровень инвестирования to land on the street ~ разг. потерять работу, оказаться на улице level ватерпас, нивелир;
уровень (инструмент) ~ выравнивать ~ выравнивать;
сглаживать;
to level to (или with) the ground сносить с лица земли;
сровнять с землей ~ горизонтальный, плоский, ровный ~ горизонтальный;
плоский, ровный;
расположенный на одном уровне (с чем-л. другим) ;
level road ровная дорога;
level crossing железнодорожный переезд ~ ав. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) ;
to give a level перейти в горизонтальный полет ~ находящийся на одном уровне ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности ~ одинаковый ~ определять разность высот;
нивелировать ~ плоская, горизонтальная поверхность;
равнина ~ равномерный ~ равный ~ ровно, вровень;
to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову ~ ровный ~ сглаживать различия ~ степень ~ ступень ~ уравнивать ~ уравнивать;
to level up (down) повышать (понижать) (до какого-л. уровня) ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
сделать все от себя зависящее ~ уравновешенный ~ уровень ~ уровень;
ступень;
sea level уровень моря;
on a level with на одном уровне с;
to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень ~ целиться (at) ;
направлять (at, against - против кого-л.) ~ горн. этаж, горизонт;
штольня ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности ~ of activity уровень деловой активности ~ of confidence степень уверенности ~ of costs уровень затрат ~ of detail степень детализации ~ of economic activity уровень экономической активности ~ of interest rates уровень процентных ставок ~ of investment уровень инвестирования ~ of living уровень жизни ~ of management уровень управления ~ of prices уровень цен ~ of probability степень вероятности ~ of prosperity уровень благосостояния ~ of unemployment уровень безработицы ~ of wages уровень ставок заработной платы ~ off выравнивать, делать ровным ~ off ав. выравнивать самолет( перед посадкой) ~ out выравнивать ~ out сглаживать ~ горизонтальный;
плоский, ровный;
расположенный на одном уровне (с чем-л. другим) ;
level road ровная дорога;
level crossing железнодорожный переезд ~ выравнивать;
сглаживать;
to level to (или with) the ground сносить с лица земли;
сровнять с землей ~ уравнивать;
to level up (down) повышать (понижать) (до какого-л. уровня) levels of abstract machine вчт. логические уровни market ~ уровень рынка minimum ~ минимальный уровень ministerial ~ правительственный уровень national ~ государственный уровень national ~ национальный уровень national price ~ уровень цен внутри страны nesting ~ вчт. уровень вложенности nesting ~s вчт. уровни вложенности ~ уровень;
ступень;
sea level уровень моря;
on a level with на одном уровне с;
to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень on the ~ честно, откровенно;
on the level! честное слово! on the ~ честно, откровенно;
on the level! честное слово! poverty ~ уровень бедности premium ~ размер страхового взноса premium ~ размер страхового вознаграждения price ~ уровень цен quality ~ уровень качества reliability ~ уровень безотказности reliability ~ уровень надежности ~ уровень;
ступень;
sea level уровень моря;
on a level with на одном уровне с;
to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень salary ~ уровень заработной платы ~ уровень;
ступень;
sea level уровень моря;
on a level with на одном уровне с;
to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень significance ~ stat. уровень значимости stock ~ уровень запасов subsistence ~ минимальный уровень жизни subsistence ~ прожиточный минимум ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности threshold ~ пороговый уровень to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место tolerance ~ величина допусков unemployment ~ уровень безработицы unsable ~s вчт. различимая градация user ~ вчт. уровень пользователя vacant ~ вчт. незанятый уровень wage ~ уровень заработной платы water ~ уровень воды water ~ mark отметка уровня воды -
18 attack
1. n1) атака, нападение; наступление; удар2) враждебная критика; нападки; выпады•to blame an attack on smb / to blame smb for an attack — обвинять кого-л. в нападении
to break up an attack — срывать / расстраивать атаку ( противника)
to build up for an attack — накапливать силы для нападения / нанесения удара
to call a halt to one's attacks — прекращать свои атаки
to carry out an attack — осуществлять / предпринимать нападение
to come under attack for smth — подвергаться критике / нападкам за что-л.
to deter an attack by smb — удерживать кого-л. от нападения
to halt the attacks on smb's leadership — прекращать нападки на чье-л. руководство
to launch a scathing attack on smth — подвергать что-л. уничтожающей критике
to launch an attack — начинать атаку / наступление; наносить удар
to make an attack (on smb) — предпринимать нападение (на кого-л.)
to marshal a conventional attack — сосредотачивать войска для нанесения удара обычными видами оружия
to open an attack — начинать атаку / наступление
to press an attack — упорно продолжать атаковать / наступать
to rebuff / to repel / to repulse an attack — отбивать / отражать атаку / нападение / удар
to stage an attack on smth — организовывать нападение на что-л.; предпринимать наступление на что-л.
- air attackto step up one's attacks — усиливать свои нападки
- all-out attack
- armed attack
- attack across the border
- attack against the enemy
- attack failed
- attack fizzled out
- attack on one's opponent
- attack on the government's policy
- attack succeeds
- attack will not go without a response
- attempted attack
- bitter attack
- blistering attack
- bomb attack
- brain attack
- car bomb attack
- carefully organized attack
- ceaseless attacks
- chemical attack
- concerted attack
- coordinated attack
- cross-border attack
- dastardly attack
- dynamite attack
- effective attack
- enemy attack
- ethnically motivated attack
- fire-bomb attack
- flank attack
- frontal attack
- full-scale attack
- furious attacks
- grenade attack
- groundless attacks
- guerilla attack
- gun attack
- hard-hitting attack
- heavy attack
- hit and run attack
- hostile attacks in the press
- ideological attacks
- ill-conceived attack
- irrational attack
- irresponsible attacks
- long-range missile attack
- malicious attacks against smb
- massive attack
- missile attacks on the cities
- mock attack
- murderous attack
- nuclear attack
- outspoken attacks
- paramilitary attack
- petrol bomb attack
- piratical attack
- plunderous attack
- poison gas attack
- preemptive attack
- premeditated attack
- provoked attack
- psychological attack
- racially motivated attack
- repeated attack
- retaliatory attack
- rocket attack
- savage attack
- scathing attack
- scurrilous attacks
- seaborne attack
- sectarian attack
- severe attack
- sharp attack
- slanderous attacks
- sneak attack
- spate of poison gas attacks
- stinging attack
- strident attack
- strong attack
- sudden attack
- suicide bomb attack
- suicide car bomb attack
- surprise attack
- sustained attacks
- sweeping attack on smb
- terrorist attack
- threat of an attack
- treacherous attack
- unfounded attack
- unprecedented attacks
- unprovoked attack
- vicious attacks
- violent attacks
- wanton attack
- wave of attacks by smb
- widespread condemnation of the attack 2. v1) атаковать, нападать; вести наступление2) критиковать; подвергать нападкам; выступать с выпадами• -
19 war
1. nвойна, боевые действия, военные действия; борьбаto abolish war — уничтожать войны; устранять возможность возникновения войны
to declare war on / upon a country — объявлять войну какой-л. стране
to drag / to draw a country into a war — втягивать страну в войну
to eliminate the menace / threat of war — устранять угрозу войны
to fight other people's wars — воевать за других, участвовать в чужой войне
to force a war on / upon smb — навязывать войну кому-л.
to go to war — вступать в войну, начинать войну, отправляться на войну, участвовать в войне
to impose a war on / upon smb — навязывать войну кому-л.
to instigate a war — провоцировать военный конфликт / войну
to know the price of war — знать не понаслышке, что такое война
to levy a war on / upon smb — навязывать войну кому-л.
to menace war — угрожать / грозить войной
to open a war — начинать / развязывать войну
to reject any arbitration / mediation in the war — отклонять любое посредничество в деле прекращения войны
to resolve a war — разрешать / урегулировать военный конфликт
to rise up a holy war against foreign invaders — подниматься на священную войну против иностранных захватчиков
to scrap star wars — отказываться от "звездных войн"
to settle / to solve a war — разрешать / урегулировать военный конфликт
to slide to a civil war — сползать / скатываться к гражданской войне ( о стране)
to stoke up a war — раздувать войну, подогревать военный конфликт
to unleash a war — начинать / развязывать войну
- abolition of warto wage war — вести войну, воевать
- accidental war
- Afghan war
- aftermath of the war
- aggressive war
- air war
- all-out war
- alternative to war
- annexionist war
- announcement of war - at times of war
- atomic war
- atrocities of war
- bacteriological war
- bitter war
- bloody war
- border war
- breathing space in a war
- brunt of war
- brutal methods of war
- brutal war
- camps war - cessation of the war
- civil war
- clandestine war
- class war
- Cod Wars
- cold war
- collapse of the cold war
- colonial war
- conduct of war
- contained war
- containment of the war
- controlled counterforce war
- conventional war
- cosmic war
- costly war
- counterinsurgency war
- country blighted by war
- country in the throes of a civil war
- country of war
- country's involvement in the war
- crack war
- crime war
- criminal war
- cruel war
- currency war
- danger of war
- de facto war
- declaration of war
- declared state of war
- defensive war
- desperate war
- destructive war
- deterring war
- devastating war
- devastation of the war
- dirty war
- divisive war - drug war
- dynastic wars
- economic war
- effects of war
- end of the war
- end to the war
- enduring war - escalation of the war
- Europe has been through wars - exterminatory war
- factional war
- feats of war
- fierce war
- final phase of the war
- First World War
- flare-up of the war
- fratricidal war
- from before the war
- full war
- full-fledged war
- full-scale war
- gang war
- general war
- global war
- gravity of the war
- Great Patriotic War
- Great War
- ground war
- guerrilla war
- Gulf War
- hidden war
- holy war
- horrors of war
- hot war - in the wake of the war
- in the war
- inadvertent war
- inconclusive war
- independence war
- initial indications of a war coming
- insurrectionary war
- intensified war
- intensive preparations for war
- interminable war
- internecine war
- jamming war
- just war
- land war
- large-scale war
- latent war
- level of war
- liberation war
- limited war
- local war
- lone war
- long war
- long-running war
- lost war
- major war
- massive war
- means of ending the war
- means of war
- menace of war
- missile and nuclear war
- missile war
- monetary and financial war
- murderous war
- national liberation war
- national war
- naval war
- newspaper war
- nightmares of war
- nonatomic war
- nonnuclear war
- nuclear war
- nuclear-missile war
- nuke war
- offensive war
- on the brink of war
- on the verge of war
- ongoing war
- open war
- outbreak of war
- outset of war
- part of the country ravaged by war
- people's liberation war
- people's war
- permanent war
- phony war
- pocket war
- poised for war - potential of war
- predatory war
- preparations for war
- prevention of war
- preventive war
- price war - prolonged war
- propagander war
- prosecution of war
- prospect of war
- protracted war
- proxy war
- psychological war
- race war
- rejection of wars
- rekindling of the war
- relics of the cold war
- renunciation of wars
- restricted war
- revolutionary war
- ruinous war
- ruthless war
- sacred war
- savage war
- scars of war
- scourge of war
- Second World War
- secret war
- shooting war
- Six-day war
- sources of war
- spillover of the war
- star wars - strategic war
- sustained war
- Tanker war
- tantamount to declaring war
- tariff war
- termination of war
- the country is effectively at war
- thermonuclear war
- thirst for war - total war
- trade war
- tribal war
- undeclared war
- union recruitment war
- universal war
- unjust war
- unleashing of war
- unwinnable war
- vengeful war
- victim of war
- War between the States
- War in the Gulf
- War of American Independence
- war against illiteracy
- war against poverty
- war against the use of drugs
- war by proxy
- war drags on
- war escalated
- war has broken out
- war has devastated much of the country
- war has flared up again
- war is as good as over
- war is at a halt
- war is at an end
- war is effectively over
- war is entering a new phase
- war is going to carry on
- war is imminent
- war is looming
- war is petering out
- war is the last resort
- war is unacceptable
- war knew no bounds
- war of aggression
- war of attrition
- war of conquest
- war of diplomatic attrition
- war of extermination
- war of extinction
- war of genocide
- war of liberation
- war of nerves
- war of secession
- war of the cities
- war of words
- war on drugs
- war on terror
- war on two fronts
- war remains intense
- war spills over
- war to end all wars
- war to finish
- war to the end
- war to the knife
- war will leave no victors
- war without end
- war would be catastrophic
- wasting war
- white war
- wide war
- winnable war
- withdrawal from war
- World War I
- World War II
- world war
- world without wars 2. vto war down smth — завоевывать / покорять что-л.
to war over smth — воевать по поводу / из-за чего-л.
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20 ♦ fight
♦ fight /faɪt/n.1 combattimento; lotta; scontro; battaglia: a fight between two armies, un combattimento fra due eserciti; to give fight, dare battaglia; to put up a fight, opporre resistenza; resistere; combattere; to make a fight of it, battersi bene; combattere bene; to put up a good [poor] fight, battersi bene [male]4 (fig.) battaglia; lotta: the fight against AIDS [against crime], la lotta contro l'AIDS [contro la criminalità]; a fight for higher wages, una battaglia per ottenere salari più alti5 competizione; gara; lotta6 [u] spirito combattivo; combattività; volontà di combattere: He still had some fight in him, aveva ancora dello spirito combattivo; to show fight, mostrarsi combattivo; mostrare i denti; fight or flight response, reazione fisiologica davanti a un pericolo ( che prepara alla fuga o all'attacco)● to fight the good fight, ► to fight.♦ (to) fight /faɪt/(pass. e p. p. fought)A v. i.1 combattere; battersi: Italy fought against Germany in World War I, l'Italia combatté contro la Germania nella prima guerra mondiale; to fight with sb., combattere fianco a fianco di qc.; to fight hard, battersi accanitamente; He fought bravely, combatté (o si batté) con coraggio; I had to fight through a lot of hard opposition, dovetti superare un'accanita opposizione2 azzuffarsi; picchiarsi; venire alle mani; fare a pugni: The cats are fighting, i gatti si stanno azzuffando4 (fig.) combattere; lottare: to fight against poverty, lottare contro la povertà; to fight for one's rights, lottare per i propri diritti; I fought to regain my self-control, ho lottato per ritrovare il mio autocontrolloB v. t.1 combattere: to fight a battle [a war], combattere una battaglia [una guerra]2 (fig.) combattere; lottare contro; battersi contro: to fight crime, combattere la criminalità; to fight a fire, lottare contro un incendio; He fought Jones for the party leadership, contese a Jones la guida del partito3 resistere a; lottare contro; opporsi a: to fight a smile, lottare per non sorridere, (mil., antiq.) manovrare in battaglia● to fight a cause (o a suit at law) against sb., portare avanti una causa contro q. □ (fam.) to fight one's corner, lottare per difendere i propri interessi □ to fight a duel, fare un duello; battersi (in duello) □ to fight an election, essere candidato in un'elezione: He fought a hard election campaign, si è impegnato in una difficile campagna elettorale □ to fight fire with fire, combattere il fuoco col fuoco □ to fight for breath, respirare a fatica □ to fight for one's (o for dear) life, lottare per la vita; lottare contro la morte □ to fight the good fight, cercare di vivere bene; comportarsi bene □ to fight like a tiger, lottare come una tigre; battersi come un leone □ to fight a losing battle, combattere una battaglia già perduta; lottare per una causa persa □ to fight shy of, evitare; evitare di (fare qc.); tenersi lontano da □ to fight to the bitter end, lottare fino all'ultimo □ to fight to a finish, battersi a oltranza; □ to fight one's way through st., farsi largo (o farsi strada, aprirsi un varco) a fatica tra qc. □ (fig.) to fight one's way to the top, arrivare in alto, lottando tenacemente.
См. также в других словарях:
Bitter — Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter apple — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter cress — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter cucumber — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter earth — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter gourd — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter principles — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter salt — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter vetch — Bitter Bit ter, a. [AS. biter; akin to Goth. baitrs, Icel. bitr, Dan., Sw., D., & G. bitter, OS. bittar, fr. root of E. bite. See {Bite}, v. t.] 1. Having a peculiar, acrid, biting taste, like that of wormwood or an infusion of hops; as, a bitter … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Bitter melon — Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked) … Wikipedia
Against the Day — infobox Book | name = Against the Day image caption = First edition cover author = Thomas Pynchon country = United States language = English genre = Novel publisher = Penguin Press release date = November 21, 2006 pages = 1085 pp media type =… … Wikipedia